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The Compound Microscope

We have already described the simpler forms of magnifying instruments, together with the best method of using them. We now purpose to describe the more complicated instrument called the compound microscope, and hints will be given as to the best method of making preparations for it. The great distinction between the simple and compound microscope is, that whereas the former instrument magnifies the object, the latter magnifies the magnified image of the object. In the least elaborate form of this instrument there are two glasses, one at each end of a tube, the small glass magnifying the object, and being therefore called the "object glass," while the other, which magnifies the image of the object, is placed next to the eye, and is therefore termed the "eye-glass." In practice, however, this arrangement is found to be so extremely defective, that the instrument was quite useless, except as an experimental toy; for the two enemies of the optician, chromatic and spherical aberration, prevailed so exceedingly, that every object appeared as if surrounded with prismatic colours, and every line was blurred and indistinct.

In this uncertain state the compound microscope remained for many years, its superb capabilities being scarcely recognised. The chief fault was thought to be in the material of which the object-glass was made, and for a long series of years all experiments were conducted with a view to an improvement in this respect. When, however, the diamond had been employed as an object-glass, and had failed equally with those of less costly material, attention was directed to the right point--namely, the arrangement of the different glasses,--and at length opticians succeeded in obtaining a pitch of excellence which can be almost termed perfection. It would be impossible to describe the method which is employed for this purpose, and it must suffice to say that the principle is that of playing off one defect against another, and so making them mutually correct their errors.

The magnifying powers of the compound microscope can be very great, and it is therefore necessary that extreme care should be taken in its manipulation. It will be possible for a clumsy person to do more damage to a good instrument in three minutes than can be repaired in as many weeks. Before proceeding to the management of the microscope and the construction of the "slides," we will briefly describe one or two chief forms of the compound microscope.

The accompanying illustration represents the simplest form of the compound microscope as at present made. It consists of a stand and a sliding tube, in which are set the glasses which magnify the object and its image. At the top is the tube, which is capable of being slid up and down in the shoulder of the stand, so as to obtain the proper focus. Above is seen the eye-glass; and the object-glass is shown at the bottom of the tube. Below the object-glass is the "stage" on which the object to be magnified is laid; and lowest of all is a mirror, which serves to reflect the light upwards through the object, and which can be turned by means of the knob at the side. The object-glass is composed of two pieces, which can readily be separated. If both are used, sufficient magnifying power is gained to show the scales on a butterfly's wing and similar minute objects; while, if one is removed, the object is not magnified to so great an extent, but a larger portion can be seen, and the definition is clearer. The cost of this instrument is from 8s. 6d. to 15s. A very convenient and useful form of microscope has lately been introduced, and is represented in the annexed cut. Its size is very little larger than that shown, and its actual dimensions can be easily judged from the size of the thumb depicted below it. It answers not only the purpose of a good compound achromatic instrument, but it can be carried about in the waistcoat pocket and used in the place of a lens to examine objects at a moment's notice. It is furnished with two powers, which magnify respectively fifteen and thirty-five diameters. The ordinary microscopic slides can be used with this instrument, and are held in their place during examination by the upright spring clips. In the field, an insect or other object can be readily placed in the forceps, which are so arranged with a ball and socket joint as to turn every way, so that the object can be examined on each side. Opaque objects can also be examined, and by holding the instrument sideways to the light, some very beautiful effects can be obtained in the way of dark field illumination. Those who can afford to do so should at once purchase a good instrument, and they will never regret an investment for their money which will bring them so much profit in the way of useful knowledge and recreation. The instruments that can now be obtained for a few pounds are in quality far beyond the expensive and complicated machines with which our forefathers were obliged to content themselves, and with which many wonderful discoveries were made. A useful microscope is shown in the above cut, and with it any amount of research can be safely undertaken. The microscope figured on the previous page is good of its kind, but at the same time little more than a toy, whereas the one now under consideration would content the most exacting student. A more expensive instrument is that called the binocular, in which both eyes are employed during an examination. The instrument is figured in the annexed cut. The proper light is our next point, and upon it rests the chief beauty of the effect. The light which will suit one object will not suit another, and even the same object should be examined under every variety of light. Some objects are best shown when the light is thrown upon them from above, and others when it is thrown through them from below. Again, the direction of the light is of vast importance; for it will easily be seen that an oblique light will exhibit minute projections by throwing a shadow on one side and brilliancy on the other, while a vertical illumination would fail to show them. On the same principle, one object will be shown better with the light in front, and another when it is on one side.

One of the most effective means of attaining this object is by using the "bull's-eye condenser," which is sometimes fixed to the stage, but is usually detached, as represented in the illustration. As the upright stem is telescopic, the glass can be raised to a considerable height, while the joint and sliding-rod permit the lens to be applied at any angle which promises the most brilliant light.

As for the kind of light that is employed, there is nothing which equals that of a white cloud; but as such clouds are rare, and are at the best extremely transient, and can only be seen by day, various artificial methods of illumination have been invented. Novices generally think that when the sky is bright and blue they will be very successful in their illumination, and feel grievously disappointed at finding that they obtained much more light from the clouds, whose disappearance they had anxiously been watching. Finding that the blue sky gives scarcely any light at all, they rush to the other extreme, turn the mirror towards the sun, and pour such a blaze of light upon the object, that the eye is blinded by the scintillating refulgence, and the object is often injured, because the mirror is capable of reflecting heat as well as light.

In the daytime there is nothing better than the "white-cloud illuminator," which is made easily enough by means of plaster of Paris. A sheet of thin white paper fastened against a window-pane is also useful; and the simple plan of dabbing the glass with putty will have a beneficial effect in softening the light, when the window has a southern aspect. In default of these conveniences, it will be often sufficient to fix a piece of white letter-paper over the mirror, or even to dull its surface with wax. At all events, he who aspires to be a true microscopist must be ready with expedients, and if he finds himself in a difficulty, he must summarily invent a method of obviating it.

At night a lamp is necessary; candles are useless, because they have two faults--they flicker, and they become lower as they burn. The latter defect can be cured by using a candle-lamp, but no arrangement will cure the flame of flickering; it is peculiarly trying to the eyes, and destructive of accurate definition. An ordinary moderator lamp answers pretty well, and a small one is even better for the microscopist than one of large dimensions. The chief drawback to the moderator lamp is, that the flame cannot be elevated or lowered, so that the only way to procure a light at a higher elevation, is to stand the lamp on a block of wood or a book. Small lamps are, however, made expressly for the microscope, and, if possible, should be procured, and used for no other purpose, and intrusted to no other hands. If you want a really brilliant, clear, white light, you must trim the lamp yourself. A small piece of pale blue or neutral-tint glass, interposed between the lamp and the microscope, has a wonderful effect in diminishing the yellow hue which belongs more or less to all artificial lights which are produced by the combustion of oil or fat. We have no doubt but that in a few years we shall be rid of the clumsy and dirty machines that we call lamps, and have substituted for them the pure brilliancy of the electric light. Whatever lamp you use, a shade is absolutely necessary, in order to defend the eyes. Let me here warn my young readers, that they cannot be too careful of their eyes. In the exuberance of youthful strength and health we are too apt to treat our eyes as unceremoniously as our digestion, and in later years we awake to unavailing repentance.

Many shades can be purchased; but it is far better to make your own after the shape here exhibited. They are not pretty to look at, but they save the eyes better than any other form, and whether for reading, writing, or microscopic work, you should use no other. The peculiar merit of them consists in the fact that the light is thrown on the spot where it is wanted, and is cut off from everything except that spot.

Another point which calls for extreme attention is the perfect cleanliness of the glasses. It is astonishing how a tiny dust-mote, or the least condensation of damp, will diminish the powers of the microscope, and how often the instrument is blamed for indistinctness, when the real fault lies in the carelessness of the operator. Even when the greatest care is taken, dust is sure to settle on the glasses, especially on the eye-piece, and before using the microscope the glasses ought to be carefully examined. Never wipe them with an ordinary handkerchief, but get a piece of new wash-leather; beat it well until no dust issues from it, and then put it into a box, with a tightly-fitting cover. Use this, and nothing else, for cleaning the glasses, and you will avoid those horrid scratches with which the eye-glass and object-glass of careless operators are always disfigured. Moisture is very apt to condense on the glasses and to ruin their clearness. If the microscope be brought from a cold into a warm room, the glasses will be instantly covered with moisture, just as the outside of a tumbler of cold water is always covered with fine dew when brought into a warm room. The microscope should therefore be kept at least an hour in the room wherein it is to be used so that the instrument and the atmosphere may be of the same temperature. You should make the microscope a trifle warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and so avoid all danger of condensation. When changing the object-glass or eye-piece, always keep the hand as far away from the glass as possible, and manipulate with the tip of the forefinger and thumb. The human skin always gives out so much exhalation, that even when the hand is cold the glasses will be dimmed; and it is a peculiarity of such moisture, that it adheres to the glasses with great pertinacity, and does not evaporate like the dew which is condensed from the atmosphere. In order to insure perfect success in this important particular, the young microscopist will do well to get the optician from whom he purchased his instrument to explain its construction, and to give him a lesson or two in the art of taking it to pieces and putting it together again; for unless each glass can be separately cleaned, no one can be quite sure that the instrument will perform as it ought to do. The best method of ascertaining whether it is quite clean is to throw the light upwards by means of the mirror, and then to turn the eye-piece slowly round. If any dust or moisture has collected either upon the eye-glass or the "field-glass," which forms the second lens of the eye-piece, it will be immediately detected. Turning the object-glass will in a similar manner detect impurities upon its surface.

We will now proceed to the manner in which objects are examined. Suppose, for example, that we take a buttercup-leaf, because it can be found at almost any time of the year. Place a piece of glass on the stage, lay the leaf on it, put on the lowest power, set the focus, and then look at the leaf. You will probably be disappointed, and see nothing but a confused mass of undulating dark green, like a green carpet thrown carelessly on the ground, and seen in the dim twilight.